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Arrangements for children

On 6 May 2024 the Family Law Amendment Act 2023 (Cth) made significant changes to family law. For more information about these changes, please refer to the Attorney-General's Department Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for parents or the Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for family law professionals. The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia's website also has further practical information and answers to Frequently Asked Questions.

The Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) encourages parents to resolve disputes without going to court and, where possible, to have cooperative and shared parenting after separation.

Family law proceedings for all children, whether their parents are married or not, are covered by Part VII of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) and all references in this section are to this Act unless stated otherwise.

Under the Act, each parent has parental responsibility for their children until they turn 18 (or earlier if the child marries) [s 61C]. This responsibility is not diminished by any orders made in respect of the parenting of the child except to the extent specifically provided in the order.

The Commonwealth Attorney-General's Department has a comprehensive guide titled Parenting Orders - What You Need to Know.

The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia has put together a video titled How the court process works for parenting cases.

Coming to an agreement

Most separating parents can arrange between themselves where their children will live and other parenting issues without taking the matter to the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia. Solutions reached in this way usually suit everybody better than a decision imposed by the Court. Court can also be more expensive, time consuming and stressful than reaching agreement together.

Everyone applying to the Court for a parenting order must attend, or attempt to participate in, family dispute resolution, unless an exception exists under s 60I(9) of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth).

Section 60I certificate

An application to the Court for a parenting order must include a certificate issued by a family dispute resolution practitioner [s 60I(7), (8)]. The certificate will say one of the following:

  • that the applicantdid not attend family dispute resolution because the other party refused or failed to attend
  • that the applicant did not attend or did not complete family dispute resolution because, in the opinion of the practitioner, it would not be appropriate for them to do so
  • that the applicant attended family dispute resolution and all attendees made a genuine effort to resolve the issues in dispute, or
  • that the applicant attended family dispute resolution but that either they or the other party did not make a genuine effort to participate.

A certificate from a family dispute resolution practitioner is not required where [s 60I(9)]:

  • the applicant is seeking a consent order (an order where both people have made an agreement)
  • the application is in response to an application made by another person
  • the situation is urgent, for example a child has not been returned or is missing
  • one or more of the people involved cannot attend family dispute resolution because of ‘incapacity’ (which includes a person being unwell or living with a disability) or they live too far away from a family dispute resolution service
  • there are reasonable grounds to believe that there has been (or there is a risk of) abuse of the child or family violence
  • a court order made in the previous 12 months has been broken and the court finds that the person who broke it has shown a serious disregard for their obligations under the order.

Once proceedings have started, the Court must still consider ordering the parties to attend family dispute resolution even if a party can prove one of the above exceptions applies to them.

Dispute resolution is about people coming together to talk about their differences and trying to reach agreement. This can happen with all the people involved talking in the same room, or it may be able to happen separately if people do not wish to see each other. Where children are involved, the aim of family dispute resolution is to reach an agreement about what is in the best interests of the children.

Options for family dispute resolution

For a list of family dispute resolution services in South Australia, see the Family Dispute Resolution Provider Register maintained by the Commonwealth Attorney-General's Department. Agreements reached may then be made into parenting plans or consent orders.

The Legal Services Commission provides legally assisted family dispute resolution, called conferencing, through its Family Dispute Resolution Unit. To use this service, at least one party must be eligible for legal aid for conferencing. Usually, both parents and their lawyers are present. Agreements reached may then be made into consent orders. To find out more, see our Family Law Conferencing pamphlet.

If you are not eligible for legal aid, you can go to a Family Relationship Centre or other family dispute resolution provider as outlined above.

National Legal Aid has developed an online service that helps separating couples reach agreement themselves about parenting and property issues. This low-cost service allows parties to reach and record agreements on a trusted secure online platform. For more information see amica – Assistance reaching and recording agreements, or visit the amica website.

Who can provide a Family Dispute Resolution certificate?

Only registered Family Dispute Resolution Practitioners can provide certificates establishing whether or not dispute resolution has been attempted. Whilst there are many services that can provide family dispute resolution such as mediation and counselling, not all are registered practitioners. The main agencies which provide these services, such as the Family Relationships Centres, Relationships Australia, Anglicare and Centacare, are registered. See the online Family Dispute Resolution Provider Register.

While an invitation to negotiate through amica may result in a formal resolution, if it does not work out, participation through amica does not qualify as family dispute resolution for the purposes of obtaining a s 60I certificate.

What happens if parents agree about the children?

There is no need for the Court to ratify decisions or make formal orders if parents agree. Agreements can be verbal, but parents are encouraged to prepare written parenting plans to help avoid disputes about arrangements for children. Family dispute resolution services or amica can assist with preparing parenting plans.

Is family dispute resolution right for every situation?

Family dispute resolution may not be suitable for every situation. Family dispute resolution is not recommended:

  • where there is a history, allegation, or risk of family violence or child abuse
  • where one person cannot make decisions on an equal basis with the other because they feel intimidated or unsafe
  • in urgent situations, for example, if children have not been returned from a visit, or if one party thinks that the other might take or damage property that they are entitled to
  • where one person refuses to participate
  • where the ability of one of the parties to participate is affected by mental illness or drug or alcohol misuse.

Is family dispute resolution confidential?

What is said during family dispute resolution sessions is usually confidential and not admissible in court. However, a family dispute resolution practitioner may (but does not have to) give information to the Court if they believe it:

  • necessary to protect a child from harm (either physical or psychological)
  • necessary to protect someone’s life, health or property
  • may prevent a crime involving violence or threats of violence
  • will assist a lawyer independently representing a child’s interests.

Are parenting plans legally binding?

Without being filed in the Court as consent orders, parenting plans have no legal force. However, if the parties are later before the Court, the Court will consider the terms of the latest parenting plan. After reaching an agreement, some people prefer to apply to the Court for a binding order. This can be done by preparing a consent order. The Court has an Application for Consent Order Kit but parties should get independent legal advice first.

Can a party still apply to the Court for orders after agreeing to a parenting plan?

Yes, a party can still apply to the Court for parenting orders. However, the first stage of the process for all applicants will still involve attending family dispute resolution and/or obtaining a section 60I certificate, as outlined above. Although not legally binding, the Court will also consider the terms of the latest parenting plan.

What if the parties want to change orders?

If both parents agree on how orders should be changed, then they can:

  • Enter into a parenting plan in writing (unless the original orders say that any variation must involve the Court) [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 64D]; or
  • Make an application to the Court for consent orders, unless the original orders say that any variation must involve the Court.

Where only one parent seeks a variation, an application must be made to the Court with evidence to justify the variation. Usually there needs to be a significant change in circumstances, and the first stage of the process will still involve attending family dispute resolution and/or obtaining a section 60I certificate as outlined above.

Applying for parenting orders

What is a parenting order?

On 6 May 2024 the Family Law Amendment Act 2023 (Cth) made significant changes to family law. For more information about these changes, please refer to the Attorney-General's Department Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for parents and/or the Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for family law professionals. The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia's website also has further practical information and answers to Frequently Asked Questions.

Regardless of their relationship status (i.e. married, never married, separated or divorced), all parents have legal responsibility for their children until they turn 18, unless a court orders otherwise.

Court orders relating to children are known as parenting orders. Parenting orders cover all aspects of care and welfare arrangements for children.

Applications for parenting orders can be made in the Federal Circuit and Family Court.

Terms such as “contact” and “residence” were used previously but the court now uses the terms “spends time with” and “lives with”.

Other specific types of parenting orders include:

  • Location Order — to find where a child is living
  • Recovery Order — to return a child to a parent or guardian

Parental responsibility

When the court makes a parenting order, the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) requires it to regard the best interests of the child as the most important consideration [s 60CA].

From 6 May 2024, the court no longer presumes that it is in the best interests of a child for their parents to have equal shared parental responsibility. Parents are nevertheless encouraged to consult each other and make decisions together about major long-term issues where it is safe to do so, unless the court orders otherwise [s 61CA]. Major long-term issues might include education, religious and cultural upbringing, and medical treatment.

From 6 May 2024, the court is also no longer required to consider ordering a child to spend equal time with each parent. This was previously required if an order for equal shared parental responsibility was made.

The court may nevertheless consider equal time arrangements, or substantial or significant time arrangements, if it is in the child’s best interests.

The Commonwealth Attorney-General's Department has a comprehensive guide on Parenting Orders - what you need to know.

Who can apply for parenting orders?

Most disputes concerning children are between the parents of the children. However, anyone who is concerned about the care, welfare or development of the child may apply to the court [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 69C(2)(d)].

This could include:

  • grandparents
  • aunts and uncles, and
  • new partners of either parent.

Grandparents may find our Having a grandchild in your care factsheet helpful.

For the court to have jurisdiction with respect to a child, the child and at least one of the parties to the application must be

  • present in Australia
  • an Australian citizen or
  • ordinarily residing in Australia.

The court does not have the power to make any orders in relation to a child who is outside Australia, including situations of international parental child abduction.

Can children apply?

Children can also apply for parenting orders (not including child maintenance orders) from the Federal Circuit and Family Court [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) ss 64B and 65C(b)].

A child who applies for parenting orders must have a case guardian (also known as a next friend), unless the court is satisfied that the child understands the nature and possible consequences of their case and is capable of conducting it. If a child applies without a case guardian, the court may appoint one [Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia (Family Law) Rules 2021 r 3.13]. Any adult that has no interest adverse to that of the child and who can fairly and competently conduct the case for the child may consent to being a case guardian [r 3.14].

The court may order the case guardian to pay costs [r 3.13] or that costs of a case guardian be paid by another party to the proceedings or from the income or property, if any, of the child [r 3.18].

What needs to be done before applying?

Before any action is taken in the Federal Circuit and Family Court, certain steps must usually be taken (called pre-action procedures), unless the matter is exempt or potentially exempt from this requirement. These steps are designed to ensure that reasonable attempts are made to resolve the matter without going to court.

Family dispute resolution required for all parenting order applications

Before bringing an application for parenting orders, both parties must attempt to resolve their dispute by family dispute resolution, unless an exception applies [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 60I(8)]. See Coming to an agreement for more information.

Pre-action procedures

There are also pre-action procedures set out in the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia (Family Law) Rules 2021 (Cth) Sch 1. These need not be complied with where there is a risk of family violence, urgency, undue prejudice or there has been a previous application in the same cause of action in the last 12 months [r 4.01(3)].

At the time of filing an application to start a proceeding, each party must file a Genuine Steps Certificate outlining:

  • the party's compliance with the pre-action procedures and the genuine steps taken by them to resolve the dispute, or
  • the basis of any claim for an exemption from compliance from either the pre-action procedures or other genuine steps.

The pre-action procedures are set out in Schedule 1 to the Rules. They require the following (if it is safe to do so):

  • The person considering filing an application must give a copy of the pre-action procedures to the other party, make inquiries about family dispute resolution services available and invite the other party to participate in family dispute resolution.
  • Each party must cooperate for the purpose of agreeing on an appropriate family dispute resolution service and make a genuine effort to resolve the dispute by participating in the dispute resolution.
  • If dispute resolution is successful, and the parties reach agreement, they may arrange to formalise the agreement by filing an Application for Consent Orders.
  • If dispute resolution is unsuccessful, before filing an application, the proposed applicant must notify the other party of their intention to start a proceeding in writing, stating:
    • the issues in dispute,
    • the orders that will be sought if a proceeding is started,
    • a genuine offer to resolve the issues, and
    • a time at least 14 days after the date of the notice within which the proposed respondent has to reply.
  • The proposed respondent must reply in writing within the required time, stating whether the offer is accepted and, if not, setting out:
    • the issues in dispute,
    • the orders that will be sought if a proceeding is started, and
    • a genuine counter-offer to resolve the issues, and
    • a time at least 14 days after the date of the reply within which the proposed applicant has to reply.

It is expected that a party will not start a proceeding by filing an application unless the proposed respondent does not respond to a notice of intention to start a proceeding, or if no agreement can be reached after a reasonable attempt to settle the matter by the required correspondence.

Schedule 1 also sets out that both parties must comply, as far as practicable, with the duty of disclosure set out in rule 6.01. This means that each party will disclose to the other all information that is relevant to the issues in dispute in a timely manner. Copies of relevant documents such as medical reports and school reports should be exchanged. Sub rule 6.05(2) lists relevant documents that must be disclosed in parenting proceedings.

Anyone who does not comply with these requirements (unless exempt under sub rule 4.01(2)) risks serious consequences, including costs penalties. Where there is unreasonable non-compliance, the court may order the non-complying party to pay all or part of the costs of the other party or parties in the case. The court may also take compliance or non-compliance into account when making orders about case management and may stay a proceedings pending compliance.

The court expects parties to take a sensible and responsible approach to pre-action procedures and parties must not use the pre-action procedure for an improper purpose (for example, to harass the other party or to cause unnecessary cost or delay). Parties must not raise in their correspondence irrelevant issues or issues that might cause the other party to adopt an entrenched, polarised or hostile position [see Schedule 1 to the Rules].

For more information, see the Court's brochure Before you file - pre-action procedure for parenting cases.

How is an application made?

Family law applications are now filed electronically through the Commonwealth Courts Portal. Parties who are unable to file documents online may submit their application in hard copy through the Federal Circuit and Family Court Registry. For more information and to access the court forms, visit the Federal Circuit and Family Court website.

Once an application has been filed with the court, a copy must be served on the respondent (the person against whom the proceedings are being taken). If the application is to be contested, the respondent must prepare a document called a Response.

From 6 May 2024, the Court has additional tools to manage potentially baseless or vexatious court applications and proceedings, including harmful proceedings orders and summary decrees.

Harmful proceedings orders

Pursuant to s 102QAC of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), the Court may prohibit a party from filing a new application without the Court's permission. A harmful proceedings order may be made if the Court is satisfied that the other party, or the child the subject of the proceedings, would suffer harm if the application was filed.

Harm includes psychological harm or oppression, major mental distress, a detrimental effect on the other party's capacity to care for a child, and financial harm [s 102QAC(2)].

The Court may make a harmful proceedings order on its own initiative or on application by a party to proceedings [s 102QAC(4)]. Section 102QAC(3) sets out the factors the Court may have regard to in considering whether to make a harmful proceedings order.

Harmful proceedings orders share some similarities with existing court powers to manage vexatious proceedings [see for example s 102QB], but the focus is on the effect of the proceedings on the respondent rather than the intent or conduct of the applicant.

Summary decrees and dismissing proceedings

The Court may make a decree in family law proceedings if satisfied that a party has no reasonable prospects of successfully prosecuting proceedings [s 102QAB(2)] or defending proceedings [s 102QAB(1)].

The Court may also dismiss all or part of proceedings if satisfied they are frivolous, vexatious or an abuse of process [s 102QAB(4)].

If the Court makes a decree or dismisses proceedings, it may also make an order for costs as it considers just [s 102QAB(6)].

What will it cost?

Court fees

For the current court fees, and information about seeking a reduced fee on the basis of your financial hardship, visit the Federal Circuit and Family Court website.

Legal costs

Generally, parties involved in family law proceedings pay their own legal costs.

Chapter 12 of the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia (Family Law) Rules 2021 (Cth) describes the costs solicitors may charge for work done in family law proceedings. Under rule 12.17, costs may be charged in accordance with a costs agreement or, if there is no costs agreement, in accordance with the Itemised Scale of Costs [see Sch 3].

When making a costs agreement with a client, a lawyer must advise the client to obtain independent legal advice about the costs agreement. If the client agrees to enter into a costs agreement, the costs to be charged must be set out in a written agreement signed by the client and the solicitor.

Costs orders

In certain circumstances, the court may make a costs order against a party, either on application or of its own motion.

From 6 May 2024, parties and their lawyers may be liable for costs if they have failed to meet their statutory duty to conduct proceedings in a manner consistent with the overarching purpose of family law. Section 95 of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) provides that the overarching purpose of the family law practice and procedure provisions is to facilitate the just resolution of disputes:

  • in a way that ensures the safety of families and children
  • in a way that promotes the best interests of the child (if applicable)
  • according to law, and
  • as quickly, inexpensively and efficiently as possible.

Section 96 requires parties and lawyers to conduct proceedings (including negotiations for settlement) in a manner consistent with the overarching purpose. When considering whether to make a costs award, the court must consider whether the parties have failed to comply with this duty, and may award costs, including costs against a lawyer personally, accordingly.

Disputing costs

Chapter 12 of the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia (Family Law) Rules 2021 (Cth) sets out the process for disputing costs.

Party to party costs

Only disputes about costs between parties (i.e. party to party costs) can be adjudicated by the Federal Circuit and Family Court. Where a party wishes to dispute the costs awarded to or against them, a Notice Disputing Itemised Costs Account must be served on the other party within 28 days of being served with the account.

The parties to the dispute must make a reasonable and genuine attempt to resolve the dispute [r 12.37]. If the dispute cannot be resolved, either party can take it to court by filing the itemised costs account and a Notice Disputing Itemised Costs Account with the court no later than 42 days after the Notice Disputing Itemised Costs Account was served.

Lawyer/client costs

Disputes between lawyers and clients regarding costs are no longer dealt with by the Federal Circuit and Family Court. Where a person has a dispute with their lawyer regarding costs, they must make an application to either the Legal Profession Conduct Commission (see Complaints about overcharging) or to the Supreme Court of South Australia for the resolution of the dispute (see Adjudication of legal costs).

How soon will the court hearing take place?

Timeframes for hearings may vary depending on the nature of the application, how many matters the court already has listed, and whether the application was lodged during a busy time of year (such as the Christmas and New Year period). Unless the matter is urgent, it is generally first heard approximately 6 weeks after the application was filed. The parties can represent themselves, and anyone over the age of 18 years can attend.

In certain emergency situations - for example, when one parent fails to return the child to the other parent in accordance with a court order, parenting plan or the child’s long term living arrangements - an application for an urgent hearing can be made.

Limited police involvement

Even if the other party is breaching existing court orders, the police will not get involved unless there is another court order authorising them to do so. If you are concerned about a child’s welfare, you can ask the police to check on the child, but usually they cannot do more than that without the court specifically authorising them to. You therefore need to apply for an urgent hearing.

Urgent hearings

The application must be filed with the court and served on the other party immediately, and the matter is heard as soon as possible.

Applications forms and what orders to seek

If there are no current court proceedings, you need to use anInitiating application form. All family law applications go to the Federal Circuit and Family Court. You will have to ask for final orders (for example, that the child lives with you) as well as interim orders. The interim orders you should ask for include an order that the application be heard urgently. You may also need to seek orders that the other person return the child immediately, that the parties be restrained from changing the child’s place of residence, and that the child’s name be added to the Family Law Watch List. You will need to file an Affidavit with your application, in which you explain why the matter is urgent and why you are asking for those orders.

If there is already a case going through court, the form to use is an Application in a Proceeding, together with an Affidavit.

Ex parte hearings

In cases of extreme urgency - for example, where it is feared that a child may be taken out of the country – you can ask the court to make an order before you have served the application on the other party. This means that the other party is not given notice of the hearing, so the hearing is held ex parte (in the absence of the other party). The court usually wants to hear from both parties, so ex parte orders are rarely made.

Passports and police warrants

As with any application, the court can order the surrender of passports (including the child's), and may issue a warrant to authorise the police to stop and search any vehicle, vessel or aircraft, or enter and search any premises, in order to take possession of a child.

To finalise a matter

Ordinarily, a matter takes about 18 months to progress from application to trial.

If the court is unable to hear the matter at the time it is listed for trial it may be put off for a further two or three months.

There is however provision for a matter to be listed for trial urgently in certain circumstances. The procedure is to write to the Judges Listing Committee requesting an urgent listing and setting out convincing reasons. Of course there is often a wide gap between the court's perception of urgency and that of the parents. If the Committee is satisfied that the case is urgent, they will give the matter an early pre hearing conference date leading to a trial in a much abbreviated time.

In general, an urgent trial listing should not be expected where the issue of urgency can be adequately addressed by interim orders addressing the situation until trial.

How does the Court make decisions?

On 6 May 2024 the Family Law Amendment Act 2023 (Cth) made significant changes to family law. For more information about these changes, please refer to the Attorney-General's Department Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for parents and/or the Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for family law professionals. The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia's website also has further practical information and answers to Frequently Asked Questions.

The Court applies Part VII of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), which relates to children.

Section 60B of the Act sets out the objects of Part VII. Part VII is intended to:

When the court makes a parenting order, the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) requires it to regard the best interests of the child as the most important consideration [s 60CA].

How does the Court work out what is in the best interests of the child?

Pursuant to s 60CC, in deciding what is in the best interests of a child, the court must consider:

  • what arrangements would promote the safety (including safety from family violence, abuse, neglect or other harm) of the child and each person who cares for the child
  • any views expressed by the child
  • the developmental, psychological, emotional and cultural needs of the child
  • the capacity of each person who has or is proposed to have parental responsibility for the child to provide for the child’s developmental, psychological, emotional and cultural needs
  • the benefit to the child of being able to have a relationship with the child’s parents and other people who are significant to the child, where it is safe to do so
  • anything else relevant to the particular circumstances of the child.

In considering these matters, the court must also consider any history of family violence, abuse or neglect involving the child or a person caring for the child, and any family violence order intervention order that applies or has applied to the child or a family member [s 60CC(2A)].

Where orders are being made with respect to an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander child, the court must also consider [s 60CC(1)(b), (3)]:

  • the child’s right to enjoy their culture, by having the support, opportunity and encouragement necessary
    • to connect with their family, community, culture, country and language, and
    • to explore the full extent of that culture, consistent with the child’s age and developmental level and the child’s views, and
    • to develop a positive appreciation of that culture, and
  • the impact a proposed parenting order may have on that right.

Harm and Unacceptable Risk

In considering what parenting orders to make, the Court is required to determine both:

  • Whether any allegations of abuse or family violence are proven on the balance of probabilities [Evidence Act 1995 (Cth) s 140, Briginshaw v Briginshaw (1938) 60 CLR 336, M v M (1988) 166 CLR 69], and
  • Where there is no proven abuse or family violence, whether there is an unacceptable risk of harm or family violence [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 60CG, Isles & Nelissen [2022] FedCFamC1A 97].

In the case of Isles & Nelissen [2022] FedCFamC1A 97, the Court on appeal clarified that the test for ‘unacceptable risk’ is not proof on the balance of probabilities but rather the “assessment of risk is an evidence-based conclusion and is not discretionary… The finding about whether an unacceptable risk exists, based on known facts and circumstances, is either open on the evidence or it is not” [at paragraph 85]. The Court stated [at paragraph 7]:

“Once it is accepted courts should (and do) react to dangers in the form of risks of harm which may merely be possibilities, it is an oxymoron to expect such possibilities to then be forensically proven on the balance of probabilities according to the civil standard of proof. By definition, possibilities are not, and could never be, probabilities. Risks of harm are not susceptible to scientific demonstration or proof (CDJ v VAJ (1998) 197 CLR 172 at [151]), but are instead postulated from known historical facts and present circumstances.”

On the question of what evidence is, or should be, admissible on this issue, the Court stated [at paragraph 105]:

“Any evidence which is relevant to and influential in that predictive inquiry is admissible and should be taken into account (presuming it survives any other applicable rules of evidence), regardless of whether it meets the definition of and the threshold requirements for admissibility under the tendency rule.”

Ultimately, the Court must make orders that are in the best interests of the children and an evidence-based finding of unacceptable risk is one of the many considerations in the exercise of this discretionary power [at paragraph 85].

Supervised Contact

Supervised contact means that the Court wants a responsible third person present when a parent spends time with their child. The Court may decide it is appropriate that a parent spend supervised time with their child because:

  • there are allegations of family violence and concerns about the child’s safety in the parent’s care (including a finding of unacceptable risk);
  • the child has not seen the parent for some time, and the Court thinks that a gradual reintroduction will help;
  • there have been claims that the child is afraid of the parent;
  • the separated parents are experiencing high levels of conflict;
  • the supervised parent needs the help of another person to care for the child;
  • the child has asked to have someone else present.

Supervised contact may be ordered by the Court at the end of court proceedings (in a Final Order) or at any point during proceedings (in an Interim Order).

Supervised contact can be done privately through another family member or a friend, through a privately engaged supervisor or through a Family Contact Service. A Family Contact Service is a neutral place where a parent and child can spend time together in a safe environment.

There are a number of Family Contact Service providers in South Australia, depending on where the parties are located. Some Family Contact Service providers include:

If you have been asked to supervise contact between a child and a parent, more information is available in our ‘Should I Supervise Contact?’ Factsheet.

What needs to be disclosed?

Parties to a case have a duty to make full and frank disclosure of all information relevant to the issues in dispute in a timely manner. This duty starts at the pre-action procedure stage before the case commences and continues until the case is finalised.

In South Australia, a Notice of Child Abuse, Family Violence or Risk must be filed with any initiating application, response, or application for consent orders for parenting matters in the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia.

In attempting to resolve a parenting dispute, parties should also, as soon as practicable, exchange copies of documents in their possession relevant to an issue in dispute (e.g. medical reports, school reports, letters, drawings, photographs).

Any documents that have been disclosed can only be used for the purpose of resolving the dispute for which they were disclosed.

What about the children's views?

On 6 May 2024 the Family Law Amendment Act 2023 (Cth) made significant changes to family law. For more information about these changes, please refer to the Attorney-General's Department Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for parents and/or the Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for family law professionals. The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia's website also has further practical information and answers to Frequently Asked Questions.

In making any decision about a child the court must consider any views expressed by the child [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 60CC(2)(b)]. The weight the court will give to the child's views will depend on any factors the court thinks relevant, such as the child's maturity and level of understanding.

There is no rule that says that children of a particular age can make independent decisions about where they live. There are a number of reasons for this, including the fact that age does not necessarily always match maturity. Children often express to each parent a wish to live with them, but may do so out of concern to maintain close contact with that parent and not to lose them from their lives, rather than with an adult understanding of the consequences.

Practical issues may arise when orders are made in respect of children aged 16 and older. A child of 17 years is unlikely to be forced to follow a parenting order about where they should live. In these circumstances, resorting to the court to enforce an existing order may be ineffective.

Children do not give evidence to the court, and the Judge will not usually see or speak to the children. The children's wishes are ascertained via a Court Child Expert providing a family assessment, or through the appointment of an Independent Children's Lawyer.

The Federal Circuit and Family Court has prepared a video titled How the voice of the child is heard?

Do the children get a lawyer?

The court may order (of its own motion, or when a child or any other person or organisation concerned with the child's welfare applies) that the child's interests be independently represented [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 68L] and ask the Legal Services Commission to arrange the representation.

In the case of Re K (1994) FLC 92-461 the Full Court of the Family Court laid down extensive guidelines for cases in which an independent children’s lawyer should be appointed. A lawyer may be appointed where:

  • there are allegations of abuse of the child
  • there is intractable conflict between the parties
  • the child is alienated from one or both parties
  • there are cultural and religious differences between the parents
  • there are concerns about the mental or physical illness or personality disorder of either parent
  • neither party seems to be a suitable residential parent for the child
  • a child of mature years indicates that they do not wish to have contact with one parent
  • there is a threat of removal of the child from the jurisdiction
  • the determination of the case may involve separation of siblings, or
  • neither party is represented.

An independent children’s lawyer does not act on instructions from the child and, in this sense, is not the child's lawyer [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 68LA(4)]. Rather, they gather evidence to be presented to the court to help it determine orders that will be in the best interests of the child.

The independent children’s lawyer may propose any orders they consider to be in the best interests of the child. They may choose to support or oppose orders proposed by either of the parents.

From 6 May 2024, an independent children’s lawyer must meet with the child and give them an opportunity to express their views about the court proceedings [s 68LA(5A)]. This requirement will not apply if:

  • the child is under 5,
  • the child does not want to meet with the independent children’s lawyer, or
  • there are exceptional circumstances that justify not meeting with the child (for example, if meeting with the child will have a significant adverse effect on the wellbeing of the child).

The court will never require an independent children’s lawyer to disclose the child’s views to the court [s 68LA(6)]. The independent children’s lawyer may disclose information the child tells them if the disclosure is in the best interests of the child [s 68LA(7)].

What evidence will the court consider?

At trial, parties do not usually give oral evidence in chief. Evidence is usually presented through affidavits which must be sworn, filed and served on the parties before the trial. Directions for the dates for completing this task are usually given at the pre hearing conference and a compliance check ensues.

The affidavit sets out the evidence in chief of each witness proposed to be called by a party. In the case of the applicant or the respondent their affidavit should be comprehensive. The following matters should normally be addressed:

  • the applicant's personality and background.
  • their schooling and occupation.
  • their health including their mental health.
  • their proposals for where the child will live and spend time.
  • the arrangements they propose for the child's care and education.
  • the arrangements they propose in respect of relevant moral issues, religious matters and cultural background issues, particularly where the child is of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent.
  • their evidence in relation to any allegations of family violence.
  • details of any subsequent marriage or de facto relationship in which they have been involved which could be relevant in the proceedings, for example, details of any re-marriage and step children.
  • issues relating to the children's stability and the status quo. If it is to be changed, they may wish to set out why this would be in the child's best interests. However, they should only include the facts, and should not argue their case.

As with all affidavits, the deponents should only include factual matters and should not include speculations or expressions of opinion. They should also be free of hearsay, that is, evidence of things which are not within the parent's personal knowledge but have been gleaned from other sources such as second hand reports, the media or text books. A parent is not considered by the court to be an expert in respect of their child, so they should not include their opinion about the child's mental or physical health.

Family assessments/counselling reports

Section 62G(2) of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) provides for the court to direct a family consultant (court counsellor) to make a report. In making a report, the consultant will commonly interview each parent and child individually, unless the child is of an age or maturity where this is inappropriate. Commonly also the consultant will observe interactions between the child and each party. Conversations with a consultant are not confidential. A report is prepared for the court and circulated to the parties. Although the consultant's opinion is not binding on the court and is just another opinion to be considered with the rest of the evidence, as it is an independent assessment of the situation it is generally persuasive.

Because of the high demand for reports, it is not practicable to obtain family assessment reports on an interim basis and they can normally only be ordered at a pre-hearing conference. For this reason, the parties sometimes arrange for a family assessment by a private practitioner to have a report available sooner. Where the parties agree, they can do this without the appointment of an independent children's lawyer, but if agreement cannot be reached then an application for an independent children's lawyer to be appointed may result in the representative arranging a family assessment. Parents are usually required to contribute to the cost of the family assessment, and where they are unable to do so and are not legally aided, the report ordered by the court is an alternative.

Psychological reports

Although a party can ask the Federal Circuit and Family Court to order a child to undergo a psychiatric or psychological assessment, this should only be done in appropriate cases. The court can give any direction relating to the assessment that appears necessary having regard to the welfare of the child. Where a direction of the court has not been obtained, the court can refuse to admit the report in evidence unless all parties gave written consent to the referral. Where someone is threatening to obtain a psychological assessment it may be possible to obtain an injunction preventing it.

Expert witnesses

As part of the pre-action procedures, a party may require that information be sought from an expert witness. The rules about instructing and obtaining reports from an expert are in Chapter 7 of the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia (Family Law) Rules 2021 (Cth).

In summary:

  • An expert must be instructed in writing and must be fully informed of their obligations.
  • Parties should seek to retain an expert in relation to a significant issue in dispute, and only where an expert’s evidence is necessary to resolve the dispute.
  • Where practicable, parties should agree to obtain a report from a single expert instructed by both parties.
  • If separate expert reports are obtained, reports must be exchanged.

Cross-examination

Witnesses can be cross-examined as part of family law proceedings. Special protections exist for the personal cross-examination of a party in family law proceedings where there is an allegation of family violence and certain criteria are met. For more information, see Family Violence and Cross-Examination of Parties Scheme.

How is parentage determined?

Ordinarily the parentage of a child is acknowledged by both parents. The Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) contains a number of legal presumptions as to the parentage of a child.

The law presumes that:

  • a child born to a woman who is married to a man is the child of the woman and her husband [s 69P]
  • a child born to a woman who cohabited with a man between 20 and 44 weeks before the birth is the child of the woman and the man [s 69Q]
  • the names of the people listed on a child's birth certificate are the parents of the child [s 69R]
  • a man who has formally acknowledged he is the father of a child on a legal instrument and has not rescinded it is the father of that child [s 69T].

Declaration of paternity

Disputes sometimes arise where there is a request for child support or a parent wishes to spend time with their child. If paternity is at issue in a matter before the court, either parent may ask the court for a declaration of paternity. A man seeking to refute a presumption of parentage must prove on the balance of probability that he is not the child's biological father.

DNA paternity testing

Parties contesting or asserting paternity can access DNA tests to establish paternity to the satisfaction of the court. DNA is made up of identifiable substances unique to each person, but which include some inherited from parents. DNA testing is accepted as the most definite proof of the physical relationship between humans. It is often referred to as a 'genetic fingerprint' and shows the links between individual body fluids in separate blood samples. The technique used to detect these links is known as DNA profiling. This technique is more effective than blood tests and blood typing because DNA can determine the identity of the parent to within 99.5% certainty as opposed to the process of elimination used in blood typing.

When will the court order DNA testing?

The court cannot order DNA testing unless it relates to existing proceedings. Orders for DNA testing cannot be made simply to satisfy the curiosity of a parent. They will only be ordered where they are needed to determine whether any parenting application is in the best interests of the child concerned.

Costs

Tests are done privately for a fee which varies between providers. Court orders for paternity tests are paid by the person who wants the results as evidence in their case. If a party receives legal aid, Legal Services may pay. The unsuccessful party will normally be ordered to pay costs. If there is no real doubt about paternity, applicants should be warned against baseless or vexatious applications, as they will be likely to pay the costs.

What if one parent refuses to return the children?

Location and recovery orders are provided for by Part VII Division 8 Subdivision C of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth). They cover the situation where a person is prevented from having contact with their children because the other parent has taken the children without disclosing their whereabouts. In appropriate circumstances the court can order anyone with knowledge of the other parent's whereabouts to disclose this information to the court. Such orders are commonly made to obtain information from Centrelink, the ATO, and banks.

Parenting orders required for location or recovery order

To apply for a location or recovery order, a person must also apply for a parenting order or have an existing order. If a person has only a parenting plan or verbal agreement about who the children live with and spend time with, they will need to apply for parenting orders when they apply for the location order.

Protection for family violence victims

Any information divulged to the court under a location order must not be provided to the person who applies for the order [s 67P]. Instead, the information is disclosed to other persons such as a lawyer, court official, process server or police officer. This is to protect a victim of family violence from being placed at risk of harm. In the case of an unrepresented party, if a location order is granted, the usual procedure would be for the court to either to supply the information to a marshal who can arrange for the other party to be served, or else to appoint a child representative to contact the other party.

Police powers under recovery orders

The court may order the return of the child by way of a recovery order which will be carried out by the Federal Police [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 67R]. As an ancillary power, the police may stop and search any vehicle, vessel or aircraft on which the child is suspected to be. In practice, Federal Police may not have the resources at any given time to retrieve a child and this can lead to some delays or to the involvement of SA Police at the request of Federal Police.

The police will not usually execute a recovery order unless the parent entitled to the benefit of the order is with them at or near the place where the child is to be recovered. If therefore the child has been taken interstate, the parent seeking the recovery of the child will have to travel interstate at their own expense before the order can be executed. If a parent has no resources to make the journey, it may be possible to seek emergency financial assistance from the Department for Child Protection.

Children taken overseas

The Hague Convention provides for the return of children from a member country to the member country of their origin. These applications are dealt with by the Australian Central Authority. For more information about making an application for the return of an abducted child to Australia, call the Australian Central Authority on 1800 100 480 or visit the Commonwealth Attorney-General's Department webpage on International parental child abduction, which includes a Guide for applicants - Applying for the return of a child under the Hague Convention. Assistance to complete applications may be available from the International Social Service, call 1300 657 843.

What if one parent wants to relocate?

It is not uncommon for one or both parents to wish to relocate after a separation. If the relocation will not affect existing or proposed arrangements for children, it is less problematic. When it will affect those arrangements, these cases can be difficult to resolve with fairness to all parties involved.

Parents considering relocation should get legal advice. If one parent relocates without the other parent’s consent, the other parent (or person concerned with the care, welfare and development of the child) may apply to the Court for an order that the child be returned.

The Court has the power to order a child’s return if it determines that to be in the child’s best interests, and will often do so pending its determination. It is therefore advisable to obtain the other parent's consent and/or a court order permitting the relocation first.

An attempt at family dispute resolution is usually required before applying for parenting orders, including orders relating to relocation. See What needs to be done before applying?

Whilst the Federal Circuit and Family Court has ruled that relocation cases are not a separate type of case, in determining the best interests of a child, the following is a list of factors that may be considered. This list is by no means exhaustive as each case will be assessed individually according to the circumstances involved.

  • The reason(s) for the parent's relocation (for example, employment prospects, new partner, family support, to escape family violence) and how these may relate back to the child's best interests, which is the paramount consideration
  • The parent's proposal to ensure the children can still spend time or communicate with the other parent (for example, communication by phone, holiday time with the other parent or even the relocation of the other parent)
  • The ease of travel between the residence of each parent
  • Each parent's attitude to the other parent (for example, where there is evidence of an unwillingness on one parent’s behalf to facilitate the child's relationship with the other parent, this can weigh against them)
  • The willingness of others (for example, extended family, parent’s new partner) to facilitate the child's relationship with the other parent
  • The relationship the child has with siblings, half-siblings or other family members and how that would be affected by the proposed relocation
  • The child's age and their wishes.

What if one parent dies?

If a parenting order states that a child is to live with one parent and that parent dies, and the parenting order does not say what is to happen in the event of that parent's death, the child will not be required to live with the surviving parent [see Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 65K]. A parent can appoint someone else to take over as guardian of the child in the event of their death, but this is not in any way binding either, and will merely be taken as an expression of the deceased parent’s wishes.

In the event of a dispute, the surviving parent (or another person such as a relative or friend of the deceased parent who is acting as guardian) may make an application to the Federal Circuit and Family Court to determine this and any other issues. The application will be decided in the same way as any other, on the basis of all of the circumstances at the time, and with the child's best interests as the paramount consideration.

The Court has established a Critical Incident List to fast-track applications by a non-parent carer where there is no parent available to care for the children as a result of the death, critical injury or incarceration (relating to or resulting from a family violence incident) of the parents. For more information, see the Family Law Practice Direction: Critical Incident List.

How long do parenting orders last?

Parenting orders end when the child turns 18, marries, enters into a de facto relationship or is adopted by another person [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) ss 65H(2) and 65J(2)].

Where the child is adopted by a step-parent, parenting orders are not altered unless the Court approves the adoption. See FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS - Adoption.

Parenting orders can be varied by application to the court. The court will generally only allow a final order to be varied where the parties agree or where there has been a significant change of circumstances since the order was made and a variation is in the best interests of the child [s 65DAAA].

How are parenting orders enforced?

On 6 May 2024, the Family Law Amendment Act 2023 (Cth) made significant changes to family law. For more information about the changes, please refer to the Attorney-General's Department Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for parents and/or the Family Law Amendment Act 2023: Factsheet for family law professionals. The Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia's website also has further practical information and answers to Frequently Asked Questions.

Parenting orders create legal obligations and are legally enforceable by the parties. The Court expects that all parties will follow parenting orders.

The parties are usually given a copy of the Court’s information sheet Parenting orders – obligations, consequences and who can help.

If one party contravenes (fails to follow) a parenting order (that has not been changed by a subsequent parenting plan [Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) s 64D]), the other party may file a contravention application with the Court [Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia (Family Law) Rules 2021 (Cth) r 11.64].

A contravention application must be filed with a copy of the parenting order that has allegedly been contravened, a supporting affidavit, and a family dispute resolution certificate (see Coming to an agreement for the circumstances in which such a certificate is not required). A contravention application cannot be filed through the Commonwealth Courts Portal but must be emailed to contraventionlist@fcfcoa.gov.au.

There is no fee to lodge this application, but cost orders can be made against an applicant in certain circumstances (for example, where a contravention is not established).

It is important to obtain legal advice before making an application. A party should consider what result they are seeking before applying to the Court. They should also consider whether a different application may be more appropriate. If, for example, the other party is refusing to return a child, an application for a location and recovery order may be more appropriate - see What if one parent refuses to return the children?.

When is proof required?

The Court may make certain orders without finding that a party has contravened a parenting order. At any stage, the Court may:

  • order that a child spend time with a parent who ought to have spent time with them under a parenting order (a 'make-up time parenting order') [s 70NBB]
  • vary or suspend a parenting order [s 70NBC]
  • order one or more parties to attend a parenting program [s 70NBD]
  • order a party to pay the costs of the other party [s 117].

Some orders require the Court to be satisfied that a parenting order has been contravened. If the Court is satisfied, on the balance of probabilities [s 70NAE], that the respondent has contravened a parenting order, the Court may:

  • order the respondent to enter into a bond, and fine the respondent if they refuse [s 70NBF(1)(a), (b)]
  • order the respondent to compensate a party who has missed out on spending time with a child as a result of the contravention [s 70NBF(1)(c)].

If the Court is satisfied beyond reasonable doubt of a contravention, it may impose a fine or imprisonment [s 70NBF(1)(d)].

The Court will impose orders it considers appropriate in the circumstances of the case, having regard to the seriousness of the contravention and the best interests of the child.

Reasonable excuse

The respondent may admit to a contravention but ask the Court not to make orders on the basis that they have a reasonable excuse [s 70NAD]. A respondent will have a reasonable excuse for contravening a parenting order if they breached the order because:

  • they did not understand the obligations imposed by the order [s 70NAD(1)], or
  • they reasonably believed that their actions were necessary to protect their health or safety or the health or safety of a child or another person [s 70NAD(2)].

There may be other circumstances in which the Court will be satisfied that a party had a reasonable excuse to contravene a parenting order [s 70NAD(4)].

A party who wishes to argue that they had a reasonable excuse for contravening a parenting order must prove it on the balance of probabilities [ss 70NADA, 70NAE].

For further information about contraventions, visit the Federal Circuit and Family Court website:

Children: Compliance and enforcement

How do I apply to the Court when parenting orders have been contravened (breached) or not complied with?

    Arrangements for children  :  Last Revised: Thu May 2nd 2024
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